When discussing famines in India, colonial-era policies often dominate the narrative — and for good reason. The British Raj oversaw some of the most devastating famines in Indian history. However, India’s struggle with famine predates colonial rule, with numerous severe food shortages recorded throughout ancient and medieval times. Understanding these early famines is key to grasping the broader context of India’s agrarian economy, environmental challenges, and the resilience of its communities.
A Land Vulnerable to Climate
India’s dependence on monsoons has historically made it vulnerable to drought. A delay or failure of the rains could mean disaster for crops, especially in areas with limited irrigation. Before modern infrastructure, failed monsoons often led to localized famines. The arid and semi-arid regions — such as parts of Rajasthan, Gujarat, and the Deccan — were particularly susceptible.
Additionally, India has always been home to a vast and growing population dependent on agriculture. In the absence of modern transportation or food storage systems, even temporary disruptions in food production could trigger serious shortages.
Ancient References to Famine
Ancient Indian literature contains many references to famine and drought. The Rigveda (circa 1500 BCE) speaks of scarcity and prayers for rain. Kautilya’s Arthashastra (circa 300 BCE), an ancient treatise on statecraft and economics, includes detailed prescriptions for famine relief — a sign that such events were both known and frequent.
Famines were considered natural calamities, and rulers were expected to intervene. Relief measures often included remissions of taxes, free distribution of grain from state granaries, construction projects (such as digging canals or temples) to provide employment, and trade regulation to prevent hoarding.
Notable Pre-Colonial Famines
Some major famines before British rule include:
1. Skanda Gupta Famine (c. 460–467 CE)
During the reign of Gupta emperor Skandagupta, severe crop failures due to drought led to widespread hardship. While specific death tolls are not documented, the famine contributed to the weakening of the Gupta Empire.
2. Famine during the Delhi Sultanate (1335–1342)
Ibn Battuta, the famous Moroccan traveler, documented a devastating famine during the reign of Muhammad bin Tughlaq. The failure of crops over successive years led to starvation and migration on a large scale.
3. Deccan Famine under the Vijayanagara Empire (mid-15th century)
Medieval inscriptions and records mention prolonged droughts and famines in the Deccan plateau. The empire’s response involved food relief and irrigation projects, but not all regions were reached in time. Specific death tolls are not available for this period.
4. Gujarat and Deccan Famine (1630–1632)
One of the most devastating famines in pre-colonial India occurred during the Mughal era. The famine resulted from three consecutive crop failures, leading to intense hunger, disease, and displacement. Contemporary Dutch records estimate that approximately 3 million people died in Gujarat in the ten months ending in October 1631, while another million died around Ahmednagar. The overall death toll for the region was estimated at 7.4 million by late 1631.
Local Relief and Resilience
Despite the frequent occurrence of famines, many Indian kingdoms had mechanisms to mitigate their impact. These included:
- Temple-based granaries: Temples in South India, such as those in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka, maintained grain reserves that could be distributed during food shortages.
- Village-level storage systems: Panchayats (village councils) often maintained grain reserves.
- Charity and religious duty: Philanthropy was seen as a moral and religious obligation. Wealthy landowners and merchants were expected to feed the poor during distress.
The decentralized nature of governance often meant that famine relief was uneven, but the sense of local responsibility helped communities survive recurring crises.
Key Differences from Colonial-Era Famines
While pre-British famines were severe, they were often localized and met with active (if not always sufficient) royal or local intervention. In contrast, the colonial response was frequently marked by inaction or policies that worsened the crisis — such as continuing grain exports during shortages or enforcing market liberalization over food security.
Most importantly, pre-colonial famines were rarely accompanied by the scale of mortality seen under British rule, where estimates suggest tens of millions died between 1765 and 1947 due to repeated famines.
Conclusion
Famines in pre-British India were tragic yet recurrent features of agrarian life. They stemmed from ecological, climatic, and infrastructural vulnerabilities — but were often met with culturally rooted systems of relief and resilience. While these systems were not foolproof, they demonstrate a historical awareness of food insecurity and an enduring ethic of communal responsibility.
Understanding these early famines gives us not just a historical perspective, but also insights into how traditional Indian societies managed risk and survival — long before the arrival of colonial economic systems that disrupted these practices.
